Pharma Easy Notes @Pharmacy

  🧪 Limit Test for Lead (Heavy Metals) Subject: Pharmaceutical Inorganic Chemistry Experiment Type: Qualitative Analysis Aim: To carry out the Limit Test for Lead in a given sample using dithizone reagent and to ensure that lead impurities are within the permissible limit as per I.P. standards. ✨ Principle Lead (Pb²⁺) in solution reacts with dithizone (diphenylthiocarbazone) in chloroform. A pink to violet color develops if lead is present. The intensity of color in the sample is compared with that of a standard lead solution. If the test solution shows less or no color compared to the standard, the sample passes the test. Reaction: P b 2 + + D i t h i z o n e ⟶ L e a d - D i t h i z o n a t e   C o m p l e x ( P i n k / V i o l e t ) Pb^{2+} + Dithizone \longrightarrow Lead\text{-}Dithizonate\ Complex (Pink/Violet) P b 2 + + D i t hi zo n e ⟶ L e a d - D i t hi zo na t e   C o m pl e x ( P ink / Vi o l e t ) ⚗️ Materials Required Test sample ...

💊 Drug of the Day – 4 : Amoxicillin 📅 Series: Drug of the Day (PharmaEasyNotes) 📖 Category: Pharmacology | Antibiotics 🔹 Introduction Amoxicillin is a broad-spectrum β-lactam antibiotic belonging to the penicillin group . It is one of the most commonly prescribed antibiotics worldwide due to its high efficacy, oral bioavailability, and safety profile . 🔹 Structure 🧪 Amoxicillin is a semi-synthetic derivative of ampicillin with an added hydroxyl group. 🔹 Mechanism of Action (MOA) Inhibits bacterial cell wall synthesis Binds to penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) Prevents peptidoglycan cross-linking Leads to cell lysis and bacterial death 👉 It is bactericidal in action. 🔹 Pharmacokinetics Absorption: Well absorbed orally Distribution: Wide distribution, including respiratory tract, middle ear, urine Metabolism: Partial hepatic metabolism Excretion: Renal excretion (mainly unchanged drug) 🔹 Uses / Indications ✅ Respiratory tract infe...

  💊 Drug of the Day – 5 : Ciprofloxacin 📅 Series: Drug of the Day (PharmaEasyNotes) 📖 Category: Pharmacology | Antibiotics 🔹 Introduction Ciprofloxacin is a fluoroquinolone antibiotic widely used for treating Gram-negative bacterial infections . It is especially effective in urinary tract infections, gastrointestinal infections, and respiratory infections . 🔹 Structure 🔹 Mechanism of Action (MOA) Belongs to 2nd generation fluoroquinolones Contains a fluorine atom at C-6 that enhances antibacterial activity 🔹 Mechanism of Action (MOA) Inhibits DNA gyrase (Topoisomerase II) and Topoisomerase IV Prevents bacterial DNA replication & transcription Leads to bacterial cell death 👉 Bactericidal in action 🔹 Pharmacokinetics Absorption: Good oral bioavailability Distribution: Penetrates well into tissues and fluids Metabolism: Partially hepatic Excretion: Mainly via kidneys (renal excretion) 🔹 Uses / Indications ✅ Urinary tr...

📌 Aim: To carry out the limit test for heavy metals present in pharmaceutical substances as an impurity. 🎯 Principle The test is based on the reaction of heavy metals (like lead) with hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) in an acidic medium, producing a brownish-black coloration of metal sulfides . The intensity of this color is compared with a standard lead solution prepared simultaneously. 🧰 Materials Required Nessler cylinders Test sample solution Standard lead solution (Pb²⁺) Dilute acetic acid Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) water or thioacetamide reagent 🧪 Procedure Take the sample solution in a Nessler cylinder. Add dilute acetic acid to adjust the pH. Add a few drops of thioacetamide reagent (or pass H₂S gas) . Prepare a standard solution of lead in another Nessler cylinder. Keep both cylinders side by side for comparison. 🔬 Reaction Involved P b 2 + + H 2 S    →    P b S ↓    ( b r o w n i s h − b l a c k p r e c i p i t a t e ) Pb^{2+} + H_2S \; \...

🎯 Aim To perform the Limit Test of Iron (Fe³⁺ ions) as per Indian Pharmacopoeia (IP) standards. 🔬 Principle Iron reacts with thioglycolic acid in an alkaline medium to form a purple-colored complex . The intensity of this color is compared with that of a standard iron solution using Nessler cylinders. Reaction: F e 3 + + T h i o g l y c o l i c   a c i d + N H 3    ⟶    P u r p l e   C o m p l e x Fe^{3+} + Thioglycolic \, acid + NH_3 \; \longrightarrow \; Purple \, Complex F e 3 + + T hi o g l yco l i c a c i d + N H 3 ​ ⟶ P u r pl e C o m pl e x 🧰 Requirements Sample solution (suspected iron impurity) Standard Iron solution (20 ppm Fe³⁺) Thioglycolic acid Ammonia solution Distilled water Nessler cylinders ⚗️ Procedure Test Solution Dissolve given sample in distilled water. Add 2 mL thioglycolic acid . Make alkaline with dilute ammonia. Dilute to 50 mL with distilled water. Standard Solution Prepare a solution of 20 ppm Fe³⁺ . ...

  💊 Drug of the Day – Aspirin (Acetylsalicylic Acid) 🔹 Introduction Aspirin is one of the oldest and most widely used drugs in medicine. It belongs to the NSAID (Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug) class and is known for its pain-relieving, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic properties . Additionally, it plays a key role in cardioprotection by preventing blood clots IUPAC Name: 2-acetoxybenzoic acid 📌 Category Analgesic (Pain reliever) Antipyretic (Fever reducer) Anti-inflammatory Antiplatelet (Blood thinner) ⚕️ Therapeutic Uses ✔️ Headache, body pain, and fever ✔️ Inflammatory conditions like arthritis ✔️ Prevention of heart attack & stroke (low-dose aspirin) ✔️ Post-surgical blood clot prevention 💊 Dosage Analgesic/Antipyretic: 325–650 mg every 4–6 hours (Adults) Cardioprotective: 75–150 mg daily (Low dose) ⚠️ Side Effects ❌ Gastric irritation, ulcers, acidity ❌ Increased risk of bleeding ❌ Not recommended in children (Reye’s Syndrom...

Aim: To perform the limit test for sulphates as per Indian Pharmacopoeia. Principle: The limit test for sulphates is based on the reaction of sulphate ions with barium chloride in the presence of dilute hydrochloric acid, producing a white turbidity of barium sulphate . The turbidity developed in the test solution should not be greater than that produced in the standard solution . Requirements: Test solution (substance under test) Standard potassium sulphate solution Barium chloride solution Dilute hydrochloric acid Nessler cylinders Procedure: Take 1 ml of the test solution in a Nessler cylinder. Add 1 ml of dilute hydrochloric acid . Add 1 ml of barium chloride solution . In another Nessler cylinder, prepare a standard solution in the same way (using potassium sulphate). Mix the contents well and allow to stand for 5 minutes. Compare the turbidity of the test solution with that of the standard solution . Observation: The turbidity of t...

  🌟 Drug of the Day: Ibuprofen ✍️ By Team PharmaEasyNotes 🔹 Introduction Today’s Drug of the Day is Ibuprofen – a widely used pain reliever and anti-inflammatory medicine. From period pain to joint pain, this drug is a go-to remedy for millions worldwide. 🔹 General Information Drug Name: Ibuprofen Category: NSAID (Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug) Available Forms: Tablet, Capsule, Syrup, Suspension, Topical Gel 🔹 Uses (Indications) ✅ Relieves Fever ✅ Effective for Headache, Migraine, Toothache ✅ Used in Menstrual Pain (Dysmenorrhea) ✅ Helps in Arthritis & Joint Pain ✅ Reduces Inflammation & Swelling 🔹 Mechanism of Action Ibuprofen works by blocking COX enzymes (Cyclooxygenase-1 & 2) → this reduces prostaglandins , which are responsible for pain, fever, and inflammation. 🔹 Dosage (General) Adults: 200–400 mg every 6–8 hours (Max: 1200–2400 mg/day depending on case) Children: 10 mg/kg every 6–8 hours ⚠️ Always consult a doc...